A Case Study Of Immanuel Kant

A Case Study Of Immanuel Kant Part 1 Immanuel Kant wrote that For Kant, then, the focus is on outcomes, or the ends of an action; in deontology the actions themselves must be ethical and moral, or the outcome is moot. Deontology argues that there are norms and truths that are universal for all humans; actions then have a predisposition to right or wrong, moral or immoral. Kant believed that humans should act, at all times, as if their individual actions would have consequences for all of society. Morality, then, is based on rational thought and is the direction most humans innately want. It is not enough, though, for there to be individual morality. Kant took this further, reacting, and argued that a state or society must be organized by the way laws and justice was universally true, available, and, most importantly, justified by humanity. Yet, for Kant, these laws should respect the nature of freedom, autonomy, and egalitarianism of all members of society. Kant saw that a few basic rights were critical for any civil society to exist. After Kant, this became a rubric by which we may understand modern utilitarian principles and their interdependence with the concept of human rights. Thus it seems that for Kant, at least in Groundwork, the task is to seek the foundation of a principal of morality that will fit the human definition in almost all cases. Rationally, each person will move towards this axiom; to do otherwise would be to remain irrational. This, in particular, has relevance in the contemporary world of philosophical discourse, in which we can look at Kants ideas about freedom and the nature of action and apply to the principles of autonomy and humans as autonomous agents. For Kant, the basic idea of morality focuses on the question, But it is far more than simply an account of human and social interactions but a larger view of the overall metaphysics of the basis of morality; political, religious, cultural, and social issues explored as well. This, for Kant, is a seminal issue of the basis of human rights rights come from a deeper sense of ethics and morality, from the very basis of what spark defines humanity. But Kant did not develop his ideas in a vacuum, of course. The notion of human rights has been an ongoing political and philosophical debate since humans began to express their thoughts in writing. At the center of this debate is the notion that many remain dissatisfied with the definition of good or appropriate being at the whim of a particular social order, or ruling elite. This debate may be found in Aristotle, Socrates, and Aquinas, leading to more contemporary political notions from Lock, Kant, and even Martin Luther King, Jr. Forming th e core modern argument, for instance, Aquinas argued that there were certain universal behaviors that were either right or wrong as ordained by the Divine. Hobbes and Locke differed, and put forth the notion that there were natural rights, or states of nature, but disagreed on the controlling factors of those natural tendencies. Kant took this further, reacting, and argued that a state or society must be organized by the way laws and justice was universally true, available, and, most importantly, justified by humanity. Kant prescribed that basic rights were necessary for civil society, and becomes a rubric by which we may understand modern utilitarian principles and their interdependence with the concept of human rights. Kant deciphers his ethical questions surrounding natural rights, and by extension social and organizational rights, by critically analyzing the motivation of utility (an act) while briefly ignoring the consequences. Synthetic a priori judgments consist in utilizing certain sensory data and utilizing the Categories to organize the spatial or chronological. When we apply categories to our sensory data in space and time, then we become aware of physical objects. Only categories make objects possible. Kant terms items that exist apart from space, time, and categories as things in themselves(noumena). Alteration of substances is possible for Kant states of matter can change, evolve; therefore thoughts change too. Subsequent states are called effects when they transition appropriately from one state to another; lawful for Kant if it is a necessary consequence. There are, of course, dependencies as well, and Kant argues that it is more the appearance of cause and effect that is important, not the things themselves. In the contemporary world these Kantian ideals can be seen in relation to the morality of public policy, social interaction, and publicity actions relating to humans that provide the synthesis of information and motion towards utility for society. One may also view Kants causality in that policies must pass philosophical order to be just as social principles. ). Morally, then, Kantian principles hold that in order to maintain what is both politically and socially just for society, the rights of the individual must not only be protected, but actively cherished and cultivated, in order for the political-social contract to be continually validate. Part 2 But how does philosophical debate translate into the dogmatic, practical nature of the modern world? For Kant, it is reason somewhat dichotomous in that when things are dissected in reality it is theoretical; but practical when he analyzes how things should be. And, is not modern social theory really about the process of making society better for all, engendering human rights and considering how things should be? For Kant, then, there are two main rubrics of moral philosophy: 1) meatphyics investigates the nature of reality, and 2) ethics, which, for Kant, seeks a priori rules that govern the manner in which free will helps make moral decisions. Reason has its practical employment in determining what ought to be as well. Theoretical reason is concerned with things that are formal and subjective. Practical reason is concerned with things that are real and objective. Kant believes that, It seems that Kant is saying to us that the basis for all morality is far deeper than just the idea of moral action or inaction it is reason itself. Reason is the human ability to make presumptions and identify the basic structure emanating from the idea of truth. It allows us to move from the particular and contingent to the global and universal. Reason seeks increasingly higher levels in order to explain the way things are. For humanity to prosper, Kant posits, the observable universe must, in and of itself, be conceived of by reason. This continual movement towards reason is simply a natural state of knowledge learning, and ways to determine the truth of the natural world. But it is clear that theoretical reason can never have knowledge of the totality of things. Morality, according to Kant, must be universal. For this reason it can only find its place within the realm of practical reason. Morality could not possibly take place within the realm of theoretical reason because this would involve the sensible world. For Kant, morality has to be pure and universal. Taking Kant a bit further, and looking at the ideas of Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics, we find that morality and ethics are more a choice of chronology and cultural appropriateness. Aristotle said we should act in the right way, at the right time, in the right amount towards the right persons for the correct reasonsNicomachean Ethics, II). The basic assumption about Aristotelian morality is that humans are moral agents through their individual actions. But, human behavior being what it is, morality is only one of the facets of humans evolution towards happiness. This centuries-long debate, though, certainly remains controversial. Now, we have the benefit of some of the Continental philosophers, of existentialism and other modern theories. But, in Kantian (and classical) ethics, narrative theories focus on ways to analyze and synthesize methodologies for establishing right and wrong, and to propose ways for distinguishing right and wrong actions. We know that two major ethical categories exist; teleological or consequential ethics and deontological, or non-consequential ethics. Teleological ethics judge consequences of actions; the right and wrong as a ratio of good to evil within a given set of parameters. Deontological ethics focus on the concept of the reason (duty) rather than any cultural or individual judgments of right or wrong. Under this paradigm, it is the nature (the inner feeling or duty or necessity) of action that defines the morality of the concept. This concept of teleological and deontological forms is unclear for Kant. There is the contrast between Kants deontological and teleological imperative within the rubric of morality. Some of the arguments in Groundwork appear to be relatively incompatible with any sort of teleological paradigm of ethics or morality. Kant insists that morality for all individuals is a part (a locus) of rational will, Similarly, the manner in which Kant views good and evil seem anti-teleological, which makes little sense considering his overall view of human nature, human values, and the purpose of the individual within the greater societal whole. Kant assumes that duty and good will are synonymous, but it is morality, which motivates both. For instance, if someone must lie or tell a falsehood to remain moral to a duty, it cannot be construed as immoral there was an a priori assumption. Actions cannot only be considered as the means to one persons end, but must satisfy the criteria of being a universal end, which ensures goodness for all, not merely for one. The basics of human nature are more inclined to act because of duty which is the proper Kantian moral. Doing so does gives one a feeling of happiness, and is therefore, perceived as good. Emotions play an important role in these perceptions, which Kant quite ignored. Emotions are not to be trusted, as they are fickle and intolerable. Perceptions, though, can change, and so can the concepts of right and wrong, depending upon the situation; a fact Kant ignores. In certain situations, for instance, falsehoods might be immoral, but Kant never conclusively proves this, remain ing rather abstract. If, because of telling a lie a human life is saved, then one can assume a desirable end has been reached but if the desirable end is not reached, how can we realistically agree that this is contrary to ones own moral duty, as Kant would have us believe? Kants categorical imperative appears unable to provide an undisputed answer to that question, and at least his final authority on moralism.

The Ambiguous Nature of Hamlet :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Hamlet

The Ambiguous Nature of Hamlet       In William Shakespeare's Hamlet, the protagonist exhibits a puzzling, duplicitous nature. Hamlet contradicts himself throughout the play. He endorses both the virtues of acting a role and that of being true to one's self. He further supports both of these conflicting endorsements with his actions. This ambiguity is demonstrated by his alleged madness, for he does behave madly, only to become perfectly calm and rational an instant later. These inconsistencies are related with the internal dilemmas he faces. He struggles with the issue of revenging his father's death, vowing to kill Claudius and then backing out, several times. Upon this point Hamlet stammers through the play. The reason for this teetering is directly related to his inability to form a solid opinion about role playing. This difficulty is not present, however, at the start of the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the first act, Hamlet appears to be very straightforward in his actions and inner state. When questioned by Gertrude about his melancholy appearance, Hamlet says, "Seems, madam? Nay it is. I know not `seems.' (1.2.76). This is to say "I am what I appear to be." Later In Act I,   Hamlet makes a clear statement about his state when he commits himself to revenge. In this statement the play makes an easy to follow shift. This shift consists of Hamlet giving up the role of a student and mourning son. Hamlet says, I'll wipe away all trivial fond records,  Ã‚   All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past,  Ã‚   That youth and observation copied there, And thy commandment all alone shall live  Ã‚   Within the book and volume of my brain (1.5.99-103).    Hamlet is declaring that he will be committed to nothing else but the revenge of his father's death. There is no confusion about Hamlet's character. He has said earlier that he is what he appears to be, and there is no reason to doubt it. In the next act, however, Hamlet's status and intentions suddenly, and with out demonstrated reason, become mired in confusion. When Hamlet appears again in act two, it seems that he has lost the conviction that was present earlier. He has yet to take up the part assigned to him by the ghost. He spends the act walking around, reading, talking with Polonius, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and the players. It is not until the very end of the act that he even mentions vengeance.

Importance of Meditation

What is meditation and what is it intended to accomplish? If you go to your doctor for stress related problems, she or he will likely tell you that perhaps the best treatment for stress is Meditation. So what is meditation? The word â€Å"meditation†, is derived from two Latin words: meditari (to think, to dwell upon, to exercise the mind) and mederi (to heal). Its Sanskrit derivation ‘medha' means wisdom. Meditation is a group of techniques that induce an altered state of focused attention and heightened awareness.Many years ago meditation was considered something just not meant for modern people, but now it has become very popular with all types of people. Published scientific and medical evidence has proved its benefits, but it still needs to be much understood. Various types of meditation that are recognized include transcendental meditation, prayer, Zen meditation, Taoist meditation, mindfulness meditation, and Buddhist meditation. Some methods of meditation may req uire the body being absolutely still or to be moved with controlled deliberation, while other types allow for free movement of the body.While the methods are different, the end goal of all types of meditation leads to a mind that is quieted, purified, and free from stress by the use of quiet contemplation and reflection. Meditation Categories. There are two general categories of meditation. Concentration techniques involve focusing awareness on a visual image, your breathing, a word, or a phrase. When a sound is used, it is typically a short word or a religious phrase, called a mantra, that is repeated mentally.The other one, called Opening-up techniques, involve a present-centered awareness of the passing moment, without mental judgment (Tart, 1994). Rather than concentrating on an object, sound, or activity, the meditator engages in quite awareness of the â€Å"here and now† without distracting thoughts. The zazen, or â€Å"just sitting†, technique of Zen Buddhism is a form of opening-up meditation. Effects of Meditation. Effects of meditation include physical, psychological, and spiritual effects.Some of physical effects include: Stabilizing blood pressure; lowering heart rate and respiratory rate; reducing stress hormones; improving mental functioning; improving brain wave coherence; improving the strength of the immune system. Some of psychological effects include: decreasing stress, anxiety, and depression; increasing joy of living; increasing positive emotions & attitude; increasing self-confidence; and increasing spiritual awareness. The spiritual effects of meditation include growing compassion; decreased sense of ego; unitive consciousness; self-realization and enlightenment.

How to Calculate the Coefficient of Correlation

There are many questions to ask when looking at a scatterplot. One of the most common is how well does a straight line approximate the data? To help answer this there is a descriptive statistic called the correlation coefficient. We will see how to calculate this statistic. The Correlation Coefficient The correlation coefficient, denoted by r tells us how closely data in a scatterplot fall along a straight line. The closer that the absolute value of r is to one, the better that the data are described by a linear equation. If r 1 or r -1 then the data set is perfectly aligned. Data sets with values of r close to zero show little to no straight-line relationship. Due to the lengthy calculations, it is best to calculate r with the use of a calculator or statistical software. However, it is always a worthwhile endeavor to know what your calculator is doing when it is calculating. What follows is a process for calculating the correlation coefficient mainly by hand, with a calculator used for the routine arithmetic steps. Steps for Calculating r We will begin by listing the steps to the calculation of the correlation coefficient. The data we are working with are paired data, each pair of which will be denoted by (xi,yi). We begin with a few preliminary calculations. The quantities from these calculations will be used in subsequent steps of our calculation of r:Calculate x̄, the mean of all of the first coordinates of the data xi.Calculate ȳ, the mean of all of the second coordinates of the data yi.Calculate s x the sample standard deviation of all of the first coordinates of the data xi.Calculate s y the sample standard deviation of all of the second coordinates of the data yi.Use the formula (zx)i (xi – x̄) / s x and calculate a standardized value for each xi.Use the formula (zy)i (yi – ȳ) / s y and calculate a standardized value for each yi.Multiply corresponding standardized values: (zx)i(zy)iAdd the products from the last step together.Divide the sum from the previous step by n – 1, where n is the total number of points in our set of paired data. The result of all of this is the correlation coefficient r. This process is not hard, and each step is fairly routine, but the collection of all of these steps is quite involved. The calculation of the standard deviation is tedious enough on its own. But the calculation of the correlation coefficient involves not only two standard deviations, but a multitude of other operations. An Example To see exactly how the value of r is obtained we look at an example. Again, it is important to note that for practical applications we would want to use our calculator or statistical software to calculate r for us. We begin with a listing of paired data: (1, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5), (5,7). The mean of the x values, the mean of 1, 2, 4, and 5 is x̄ 3. We also have that ȳ 4. The standard deviation of the x values is sx 1.83 and sy 2.58. The table below summarizes the other calculations needed for r. The sum of the products in the rightmost column is 2.969848. Since there are a total of four points and 4 – 1 3, we divide the sum of the products by 3. This gives us a correlation coefficient of r 2.969848/3 0.989949. Table for Example of Calculation of Correlation Coefficient x y zx zy zxzy 1 1 -1.09544503 -1.161894958 1.272792057 2 3 -0.547722515 -0.387298319 0.212132009 4 5 0.547722515 0.387298319 0.212132009 5 7 1.09544503 1.161894958 1.272792057