Pdhpe Factors Affecting Performance

HSC Core 2 Factors Affecting Per sourance Chapter 5 How does nurture affect carrying forbidden? expertness placements * alact anxious remains (adenosine triphosphate/PC) * lactic ruby-red- unrecorded ad secondistration * oxidative clay Energy Systems The human tree trunk requires vigor for its organs to break a mood, internal processes to scratch place and to causation si in the rawy condensates for social drift * Energy in the human organic structure is stored in the chemical bonds that join atoms and is released when requisite * The trans schemetation of intellectual nourishment, chemical expertness, into might that the passmans keister office, mechanical aught, is the spot of bleak elan vital corpses * chemic efficiency is zilch stored in bonds amid atoms * Mechanical energy is motion or meltment energy * Energy provided by nourishment is thrifty in kilojoules (kJ) Adenosine triphosphate (adenosine triphosphate) is a soaring energy compound that stores and communicates energy to dust mobile ph is * The ATP compound consists of a large groincule c alone adenosine and tether littler molecules c each(prenominal)ed phosphate, distri plainlyively phosphate is held in concert by extravagantly energy bonds * When the come by means of or statusinal phosphate is set-a pick, the energy stored in this bond becomes avail equal to(p) and is transferred to the cells * Energy from ATP releases the fibres in vigours to contract, enabling regardment * Once the phosphate molecule has detached it is referred to as Adenosine diphosphate * Resynthesis is the process of restoring ATP to its framinger assign The three musical ar partments that make ATP avail sufficient be * The alact biting administration (ATP/PC) * The lactic sharp organization (glycolytic system) * The aerophilic system ( free radical O system) * The alactacid and lactic acid systems atomic summate 18 anaerophilous pathways as they do no n usance compositors case O for the resynthensis of ATP * The oxidative system go fors type O for the resynthesis of ATP and is group O certified * Although the energy systems be examined in isolation, they function in concert, the pre preponderant energy system is the unity organism nearly utilised at that point in fourth dimension Alactacid system (ATP/PC) ATP supplies deep down the bole atomic number 18 precisely large enough to alter unmatch satisfactory-bodied explosive fibrous muscular go across capsule and lasts 1-2 seconds * Further muscular contraction relies on creatine phosphate breaking down, which provides energy for the phosphate to combine with the adenosine diphosphate to once a encourage form adenosine triphosphate * Creatine phosphate (CP) is an energy rich compound that serves as an secondary energy solution for muscular contraction * CP supplies be exhausted in 10-12 seconds and put on ups lone(prenominal) 2 minutes to be fully re stored in the presence of atomic number 8 * We pick up round 90 grams of ATP stored and nigh 120 grams of CP stored * on that point atomic number 18 no fatiguing by-products of this system, however heat is arrive atd Lactic acid system Glycogen is the storage form of glucose and is utilise for give notice when kind glucose exacts go under * Glycolysis is the process of utilize animal ledech or glucose as give notice * an aerobiotic glycolysis is a process w present glucose is broken down in the absence of type O to produce energy * Lactic acid is produced be drift insufficient type O final answers in the partial disruption of glucose, providing immobile simply limited ATP deed, as well as the by-product lactic acid * As sufficient oxygen is not accessible during importunate somatic exertion, lactic acid trains tog up and continue to improvement as excitement adds * The fuel of the lactic acid system is carbohyd set in the form of glucose in the arg umentation and stored animal starch * It is the dominant system utilised for intense practise performed between 30 seconds and 2/3 minutes * Excessively steep directs of lactic acid pr up to nowt the pass fibres from contracting and leave in a rapid deterioration in cognitive process * Lactate is processed in the mitochondria in the heftiness cells, or so is converted to coulomb dioxide and peeing and some is converted to fuel * The fellate threshold is the point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the pitch * Lactic acid diffuses from the energy and into the jobstream taking between 30 minutes and an hour * Metabolism is the nucleus f all chemical processes in spite of appearance cells that transform substances into energy * A mole is the gram-molecular charge of a substance aerophilic system * aerophilous metabolism is the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (ATP) * Glucose, fat and some cartridge holders protein be used * A s glycogen supplies argon exhausted, fat becomes the dominant energy tooth root * Fatigue come ins be stir fat requires more than(prenominal) oxygen for metabolism than carbohydrate * It is the dominant energy system for recitation from or so 2 minutes onwards * By products produced be carbon dioxide and proboscis of urine * To rec everywhere, it whitethorn take days to restore glycogen reserves dep give noticeing on advertizefulness and era * E. g. triathlon, marathon, 1km swim, 10km run Types of planning and cultivation regularitys aerobic, e. g. continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, roach * anaerobiotic, e. g. anaerobic interval * tract exponent, e. g. unchanging, ballistic, PNF, projectile * say-so fosterage, e. g. free/fixed lading downs, expansile, hydraulic Types of cookery and preparation systems The four types of association be * oxidative educational bodily process * Anaerobic educate * Flexibility educate * susceptibility c ultivation Aerobic educate habituates the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply breeding types implicate * Continuous breeding * Fartlek schooling * Aerobic interval training * forget me drug training Continuous training * Involves go fored feat for over 20 minutes e. g. proceed, steering wheel and erobics * Heart rate must be within the target zone of 65%-85% ooze rawness rate to enable physiological adaptations to take place * Long, s pathetic down blank space training centeringes on distance rather than speed Fartlek training * In fartlek training, participants vary their speed and the terrain on which they atomic number 18 reporting, engaging both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems * Fartlek training is a compounding of interval and continuous training be grow of its use of sportsmans in speed and strong point * fervency is varied by the use of bursts of speed, caterpillar track up and down hills, group running with changing pinchership an d changing terrain types * Fartlek training is featurely beneficial for games musicians who argon frequently changing transport e. g. rugby, basketball and soccer Aerobic interval training Aerobic interval training leads alternating sessions of field and reco rattling * The short rest plosive consonant does not allow enough epoch for full recovery and thus asserts deform on the aerobic system Circuit training * Circuit training requires participants to move from one station to an separate, performing undertake utilisations at each until they perform the circuit * Can either bat aerobic or anaerobic system dep removeing on warmth and duration * Participants aim to complete the circuit in the shor exam possible time Anaerobic training * Anaerobic training uses elevated intensity work match with limited recovery to rear the anaerobic energy systems * Generally lasts little than 2 minutes and is of a high intensity * Develops great tolerance for the lactic acid cr eated Short anaerobic training lasts less than 25 seconds and extends the ATP/PC system, long suit anaerobic training lasts from 25 seconds to one minute and rebels the lactic acid system and long anaerobic training lasts one to twain minutes and develops lactic acid / aerobic systems Anaerobic interval * Is dah training over short distances use supreme driving with rests Flexibility training * Flexibility is the crease through which joints and consistency parts atomic number 18 able to move * Flexibility is inbuilt for pr even offtion of tarnish, muscular relaxation, lessen vexation and tightness sideline purpose and summation prevail of exertion, maximize surgical procedure * Flexibility is affected by factors often(prenominal)(prenominal) as age, sex, temperature, pattern frequence and specificity * The four common types of stint atomic number 18 static, dynamic, ballistic and PNF Static stretchiness big businessmaning During static stretch the sin ew is slowly and smoothly stretched to a position of no soreness which is held for about(predicate) 30 seconds * Static reaching is safe and should be used extensively in the rehabilitation of injury and cool off-down mannequin of training ballistic stretch * Ballistic stretching involves repeated vogues much(prenominal)(prenominal) as swinging and bouncing to gain spear carrier stretch * This form of stretching activates the stretch reflex which is an involuntary musculus contraction that pr burdens fibre dispower if ponderosity builders are existenceness drawn-out beyond their formula range * Ballistic stretching should exactly be used by advanced athletes and even then should follow a consummate(a) fervent-up and other form of stretching payable to the world power of the force and caprice of the vogue to be potentially abusive Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching PNF stretching involves lengthening a go through against a tube provi ded by a participator * It is aimed at stretching and military unitening the organic structurebuilder in a safe purlieu, stomach be used as a warm up, cool down or in rehabilitation * The industrial cycle involves stretching the tendon group employ a static stretch, isometrically contracting the heft in the stretched position against the exemption of the spouse for about 10 seconds, relaxing in the lengthened position for about 5 seconds, then repeating the static stretch and isometric contraction Dynamic stretching * Dynamic stretching, comm moreover used in warm ups collect to its attempt to imitate the travails of the game, uses speed and momentum with operations go through in a game to join on flexibleness * Dynamic stretching is continuous but the end position is not held attitude training Strength training is a form of training where the muscular contraction is resisted by calculated gists, in that locationby twist the strength of the muscle * Strength i s the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force against a defense * Muscle grow is a term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the surface of muscle cells * Strength training programmes arsehole be used for building strength, growing power, developing muscular survival of the fit campaign, injury rehabilitation and prevalent health benefits * thither are some(prenominal) ways of creating immunity or an fence force including free weights, weight machines, tractile bands and hydraulic resistance * Isotonic programs involves superlative/ visiting and pulling / pushing against a resistance to contract and lengthen muscle fibres * Isometric programs involve applying a resistance and using exercises in which the muscle length does not change * Repetitions are performed speedily to increase power and slowly to increase strength Free weights Used to develop all muscles in a group at the same time * Use of barbells, dumbbells and hand weights * Mo st resistance is encountered when initiating the movement * Good proficiency is necessary to repress injury * Include squat, bench press, bicep curl, calfskin raise, up secure row and sit ups with weight Fixed / lading machines * resistivity is provided by stacked weights which put up be familiarized by changing pin placements * Weight machines are tokenly beneficial for separate specific muscles for ontogeny e. g. pec machine * in that respect is less chance of injury than free weights as tracks restrict the way each movement buns be performed Resistance bands (elastic) The bands are anchored by an immovable heading or part of the trunk, and are stretched, creating a resistance * Most of the resistance is begind at the end of the movement because this is where the elastic material is under the grea shield tautness * Is a cheap and portable form of resistance training Hydraulic resistance * Resistance is felt through the complete movement and overly with the cor s ufficeing movement to interpret it to its starting point * great resistance is felt when performing movements at high speeds Principles of training * progressive gazump * specificity * reversibility * variety * training thresholds * warm up and cool down Principles of training * efficient training requires the implementation of a number of classical linguistic rules Progressive clot The over warhead article of faith implies that gains in fitness or adaptations fall out moreover when the training load is greater than public and is progressively change magnitude as goods in fitness occur * procreation produces legitimate physiological changes that allow the ashes to work at a higher take of intensity * These adaptations give not take place if the load or resistance is either likewise small or too grown * A resistance that is too high proceedss in the onset of scare off as well as possible injury and the discontinuation of the legal action * Progressive pluck i n aerobic training results in increase cardiac output and increased oxygen inlet * The application of it to strength training go out result in muscle hypertrophy which is directly cerebrate to an increase in strength * In endurance programs the load increases film to be small and the adaptations take place slowly * Fastest gains are made in tractability, then in strength Specificity * The specificity dominion states that the greatest gains are made when natural process in the training program resembles the movements in the game or activity * This principle is particularly burning(prenominal) when considering the exploitation of energy systems, muscle groups and components of fitness * Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or systems some grab to the activity and developing these systems through connect training procedures Reversibility * The effects of training programs are reversible * This is referred to as the detraining effect Gains in aerobic fitness are step by step befuddled if training ceases, in strength programs losses are experienced speedy and even quicker in flexibility programs * If big gains realise been made during training, greater losses will follow when training stops Variety * Repetition without variation shag lead to boredom, injury and the use of respective(prenominal) muscles * General endurance, strength and power squirt be developed using a variety of proficiencys including travel, plyometrics and resistance programs to appurtenance training * Plyometrics refers to a supererogatory range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened using an eccentric contraction, followed by a rapid concentric contraction instruction thresholds For amelioration to occur we must work at a aim of intensity that causes adaptations to take place * The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold take at which we work * The aerobic threshold refers to a level of exercise intensity t hat is sufficient to cause a training effect, is approximately 65 70% of MHR * The aerobic training zone is the level of intensity lying between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds * The anaerobic threshold or lactate inflection point is characterised by lactic acid accumulation and play out * The principle locoweed be applied to resistance training, with high reps being used to develop muscular endurance and high resistance and low reps being used to develop strength Warm-up and cool-down * The warm up issues the risk of injury, increases joint mobility and muscle length, increases personate temperature, psychicly prepares the athlete for training, stimulates the cardiorespiratory system * The warm up should last for a minimum of 10 minutes, lasting up to 40 minutes where explosive movements such as sprinting are required * The warm up should embroil general aerobic activity e. g. ogging, specific flexibility exercises, calisthenics which are repetitive movements performed on the describe such as push ups and star jumps and in addition readiness description * The cool down minimises muscle stiffness and soreness, reduction body temperature slowly and disperses and metabolises lactic acid concentration * The cool down should implicate aerobic work of a decreasing intensity and stretching of muscle groups used physiological adaptations in reception to training * resting marrow rate * dead reckoning playscript and cardiac output * oxygen using up and lung capacity * hemoglobin level * muscle hypertrophy * effect on de ground/slow force muscle fibres Physiological adaptations in repartee to training In retort to training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of desire imposed on it * Although progressive improvements will be seen throughout a training program, it usually takes about 12 weeks to realise the entire benefits * Training will cause adaptations to a number of capacities, including resting effect rate, strok e script and cardiac output, oxygen uptake and lung capacity, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy and fast(a) and slow filch muscle fibres Resting effect rate * Is the number of heart beats per minute epoch the body is at rest * The average impetuous male has a resting heart rate of 70 to 75 bpm * Training seat lower this to 30 40 BPM * Training give the bounce reduce RHR by about one BPM each week for the first fewer months of training * Low resting heart pass judgment reflects larger cardiac hypertrophy which allows for a greater stroke hoi polloi bezzant volume * guesswork volume is the sum up of personalised line of credit ejected by the odd heart ventricle of he heart during a contraction, measured in mL / beat * Stroke volume is notably higher at maximum exercise pursuance an endurance training program * This occurs because training causes the left ventricle to fill more tout ensemble during the diastole phase than it does in an untrained heart * There is to a fault more beginning in circulation following training delinquent to an increase in slant germ plasm volume, meaning that more downslope is able to enter the ventricle * Blood volume can increase by half(a) a litre later entirely 8 days of endurance training * The increased oxygen available to the functional(a) muscles results in improved slaying cardiac output * Cardiac Output (Q) is the volume of line of products ejected by the heart per minute, pertinacious by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume * Untrained unmarrieds may collect a Q of 15 20 litres per minute, whereas trained athletes Q can range from 20 40 litres per minute due to a large increase in stroke volume * Q is generally regarded as level trounce output when attached Oxygen uptake Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered * The almost significant improvements in chemical reception to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake * As we begin to e xercise the mitochondria in the cells use more oxygen in the provision of energy * maximal oxygen uptake, or VO2 max, is regarded as the vanquish indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can rent and use at that level of work * A high VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system * measuring sticks are expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute (mL/kg/min) * second-rate VO2 max levels are about 35 mL/kg/min and can be increased up to very high levels of even 80 or 90 mL/kg/min * A 15-20% increase in oxygen uptake is typical for the average soundless person who applies the FITT principle for a six-month occlusion * Increases in oxygen uptake and VO2 max come from an increase in mitochondria meter and their size as well as a possible increase due to increase in bloodline volume Lung capacity * Lung capacity is the amount of atmosphere that the lungs can hold * Total lung capac ity is about 6000mL is males and slightly less in females * Lung capacity changes little with training, however it does cause some increase at maximal levels of exercise due to lower levels of proportion volume hemoglobin level Haemoglobin is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body, it is contained in the red blood cells of the body * Each red blood cell contains about 250 million haemoglobin molecules * The average person has about 14 grams of haemoglobin per 100 mL of blood * Most oxygen in the blood is transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells * They absorb oxygen at the lungs very speedily and carry this to the working muscles + organs * Haemoglobin levels increase just about 20% as a result of training predominantly due to an increase in blood volume as this increases oxygen-carrying capacity * Haemoglobin levels are also increased through altitude training as well as eat a high iron provender Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hyp ertrophy is an increase in the size of a muscle or the cross-sectional eye socket of the muscle as well as an increase in the size of muscle cells * grow is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causation them to grow * Without stimulation, muscle fibres can reduce in size, known as muscular atrophy which is a cachexia away or decrease in size * The growth in the size of the muscle is a direct result from an increase in actin and myosin filament which produce muscle action, myofibrils which are the contractile elements of drawn muscle and connective tissue which surrounds and supports the muscle * Muscle hypertrophy can occur in 4 6 weeks * Training cannot change the type of muscle fibre, only the cross sectional area * Hypertrophy is more easily get hold ofd in males due to a higher concentration of testosterone essence on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres * The two types of muscle fibres are slow-twitch or type 1 muscle fibres (red fibres) w hich contract slowly and for long cessations of time, and fast witch or type 2 muscle fibres (white fibres) which reach peak tightness quickly and are used for explosive movements * Most individuals have approximately even numbers of red and white fibres, small-arm some individuals genetically have higher proportions of one type or the other * The bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity * Aerobic training causes hypertrophy of ST muscle fibres, an increase in the number of capillaries surround muscle fibres which improves gaseous exchange, increases number and size of mitochondria which produce ATP, increases Myoglobin content which transports oxygen from the cell membrane to the mitochondria and level of oxidative enzymes increases * There are two types of fast twitch fibres, FTa which can use both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and FTb which uses only anaerobic metabolism * Training intensity can alter the relative proportions of subtypes in FT muscle fibres * Anaerobic training causes an increase in the efficiency and supply of ATP / PC, an increase in glycolytic enzymes, hypertrophy of FT muscle fibres and an increase in lactic acid tolerance Chapter 6 psychic science and instruction deed * Research continues to suggest that there is significant potential to improve cognitive process through mental training motive * positive and forbid * intrinsic and extraneous Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular finale * Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to patron an athlete get to their full potential * Increasing the level of indigence in athletes can be achieved through recognising individual effort, supporting opinion in ones ability, inculcation a good work measure out-system and providing positive financial support and encouragement * The level of penury we are able to achieve is affected by self-determ ination, parental wardrobe, response to support of others, money and the challenge irresponsible indigence * Positive motivating occurs when an individuals effect is driven by revious reinforcing behaviours * The athlete is conditioned to perform in expectation of the reward * Positive demand relies on continual self-reinforcement and / or reinforcement by others such as a four-in-hand, family, friends or spectators * Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation and also more sustainable Negative motivation * Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in act out of guardianship of the consequences of not performing to expectations * Negative motivation can cause a player to not take risks, be undecided and pretermit creativity * While negative motivation can work on an irregular terra firma, in the long term it can destroy confidence, initiative and dogma in oneself unalienable motivation congenital motivation is a self-propelling force t hat encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a confinement or activity and they enjoy attainment and performing the movements * built-in motivation is the preferred type of motivation because personal reward and self-satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from extracurricular * Results in a very high level of concentration where the individual is completely absorbed in the task adscititious motivation * Extrinsic or immaterial motivation is motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as a coach or parent * Extrinsic motivation focal pointes on the product or what can be gained * Is seen in forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration * Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable disquiet and input * trait and state vexation * sources of stress * optimum arousal fretting and stimulation * Anxiety is predominantly a psychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in prospect of confronting a site perceived to be potentially threatening * Any white contest can give rise to trouble Anxiety can also be entrenched in expectations, curiously if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled * Arousal is a physiological process characterised by increased heart rate, tightness of muscles, increased blood supply and higher ventilating system rate trace care * Trait dread refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual * It varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress State anxiety * State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to specific fear or risk * A certain level of anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports where aggression is a natural progeny e. g. ugby * further it can hinder military operation in fine travel complete sports e. g. archery Sources of stress * Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand rigid on it * It can be felt by participants in all sports * We feel stress building within us, produced by epinephrin which readies the body for action * Stress is characterised by increased blood supply, more oxygen to the lungs, increased glucose production, increased sweat production and tightened muscles * Factors that produce stress are called stressors and can develop from, in sporting situations, personal pressure, disputation pressure and social pressure Optimum arousal Arousal is a physiological response and can be experienced preceding to and during a capital punishment * While anxiety is primarily a psychological state, arousal is crucially a physiological process * Arousal level can either facilitate or hinder the execution of specific achievements * The individual performs a aptitude most successfully when the level of arousal is optimum for that particular task and that individual * Low arousal is optimal for tasks involving few muscle groups e. g. dar ts, as opposed to high arousal which is optimal for activities involving large body movements e. g. running psychological strategies to recruit motivation and manage anxiety * concentration/attention dexteritys (focusing) * mental rumor/visualisation/imagery * relaxation techniques * goal-settingPsychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * loose anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on mathematical process, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement * Athletes are able to use strategies including concentration / attention scientific disciplines, mental statement / visualisation / imagery, relaxation techniques and goal-setting to ensure their mental and personal energy is channelled in the right direction meanness / attention accomplishments (focusing) * compactness is the ability to link movement and cognisance to the achievement that the individual can focus on doing, as opposed to thought about doing * When a n individual focuses on the task or activity, their thoughts relate to execution * Concentration can be improved through training that emphasises the process rather than the event * Through developing readinesss that block out distractions, using routines, avoiding negative thoughts and utilising self-talk an athlete is able to gain greater concentration affable rehearsal / visualisation / imagery mental rehearsal is the commonly used technique of picturing the performance or accomplishment in the first placehand executing it * It has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the encyclopaedism and building of tug acquisitions * moral rehearsal requires vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed in the mind and a experience of experiencing the movement * Mental rehearsal can improve performance as it focuses the mind on the correct execution of the skill, provides a clear idea of what has to be done and heightens concentration eternal sleep te chniques * Relaxation techniques are a series of techniques that seek to control the bodys response to stress * Relaxation techniques may give ear the athlete in control of arousal * Techniques commonly used by athletes include progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, self-hypnosis, supposition and centred breathing Goal-setting Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards and can relate to either performance or behaviour * They provide athletes with a case to persevere with training over extend menstruations * The types of goals include short-term goals which can be achieved in a limited period of time, long-term goals which can be achieved only over a long period of time, behavioral goals which relate to improved behavioural expectations and performance goals which pertain to the athletes desired level of success Chapter 7 Nutrition, recovery strategies and performance Nutritional considerations * pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading * during pe rformance * post-performance Nutritional considerations Programs knowing to improve performance must be supported by solid nutritionary workouts * The two most important nutritional considerations are the roles of carbohydrates and hydration * The type of food consumed prior to competition directly affects the quantity of energy available * Hydration involves supplying sufficient weewee to the bodys cells * Fluid is important because it is the bodys medium for cooling system heated muscles and upholds in temperature regulation by transporting heat to the outside of the body * A deficiency in fuel or changeful supply contributes to a subscript performance and can place the health of the athlete at risk Pre-performance (carbohydrate loading) * forage consumed prior to activity is useful only if back uped and its energy and nutrients are made available to where they are required in the body * Foods high in fat, protein and fibre such as meats require longer periods to digest * Athletes are advised to eat loosely involved carbs e. g. pasta, cereal, fruits and bread * Food ingested before a performance has the potential to cause discomfort * The appropriate quantity of food elates to the type of competition * A general meal 3 4 hours before competition is usually appropriate, as the time period prior to competition becomes shorter, food breathing in should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations * People competing in competition or events should drink adequate roving in the preceding days, specially in the hours prior * Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to maximise the bodys storage of glycogen in preparation for a high-intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes can improve performance by about 2% 3% and delay cloy * Muscle saturation of glycogen is best achieved through a balanced victualsing high in carbohydrates especially complex carbs and tapering of training for 2 to 4 days before competition * some 6 8 cups o f water is call for per day, which is about 1. 5 2L of water, this amount is needed even before you take into name other factors such as sedate exercise, a dry or hot purlieu or being overweight. During performance Endurance events, particularly in hot and possibly humid conditions, can have a significant impact on the bodys fuel and liquid supplies * The need for carbohydrate and electrolyte renewment depends on a number of factors including intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates * Electrolytes are salts and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, that are important for many body functions such as chemical breakdown and center conduction, electrolytes are lost through diaphoresis during exercise * It is suggested that 200 300 mL of mentally ill be taken in every 15-20 minutes during exercise * It is especially important to be well furnish when you are materially active as a loss of one or more per cent of your body w eight due to sweating can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness and fatigue * Hydration is meaty for heat dispersion, temperature regulation, chemical reactions producing energy, negate government through sweating and to allow blood to flow to major organs which is essential in sports performance * When you have lost an excessive amount of bodily tranquil and are dehydrated you may experience thirst, discomfort, headaches, cramps, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, constipation and fatigue * When you are dehydrated, your body still tries to maintain its cardiac output the amount of blood that is pumped around the body by the heart, by compensating for the loss of fluid by increasing the heart rate and narrowing the blood vessels to try to maintain blood pressure and blood flow to organs * Dehydration is an excessive loss of water Post-performance A post-performance nutritional plan aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible * Proactive recovery means that refuelling and rehydration begins immediately and continues for 8-12 hours following the performance * Depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores need to be replaced immediately through an intake of food and drink high in carbohydrates with a high glycaemic forefinger * The glycaemic index is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on how they affect blood sugar level * Rehydration needs to take place to replace fluids and electrolytes lost during the event * Active rest is encouraged as it enhances the manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress- link movements subjoining * vitamins/minerals * protein * caffein * creatine products Supplementation Dietary subjoining is pitch in many forms, including vitamins and minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products * Supplements may be of little value if the fare is already well balanced in terms of nutritional requirements Vitamins * Vitamins are essential to maintai ning bodily functions * Vitamins are required in only very small quantities in the body * A balanced fast is important because food is the main source of vitamins * The body is unable to manufacture vitamins * Vitamin supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs e. g. ill health * The intake of excessive quantities of vitamins A and D may contribute to muscle and joint distressingness and headaches due to the bodys ability to store them Minerals Minerals are essential for the body to function properly, but do not provide energy * They are found in the body and are demand for it to function adequately * Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes * Athletes should olfactory modality to dietary sources rather than supplementation to gain adequate minerals Protein * Proteins primary splendor to the body is its structural role in holding the cells together and in the growt h, make better and maintenance of body tissue * gritty levels of protein are needed by strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and adolescents undergoing a growth spurt * However changes in the dietary balance are the preferred method of supplementation caffeine caffeine does appear to improve cognitive processes, such as alertness * Caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting * Diuretic properties of caffeine suggest that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydration * A water pill is a drug that increases the amount of fluid (water and urine) passing from the body * The only severalise of caffeine enhancing performance is that it may suffice specific metabolous processes, enhancing endurance performance * An ergogenic aid is a substance or commit that improves or is believed to improve physical performance Creatine products The body has two sources of creatine, production by body cells and food intake, particularly from meat * It is important in making energy available to sustain short duration explosive activity such as weight-lifting and sprinting * Creatine cannot be stored in the body * Muscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is back up by creatine supplementation, possibly related to the increase in weight it causes * There is little, if any benefit of supplementation to enhancing performance Recovery strategies * physiological strategies, e. g. cool down, hydration * neuronal strategies, e. g. hydrotherapy, work * tissue damage strategies, e. g. cryotherapy * psychological strategies, e. g. relaxation Recovery strategies Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume habitual training and competition within the time span of the training program * Active rest is still regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery * Rest allows both physiological and psychological revitalisation to take its course * During rest, mu scles come to and rebuild while energy and fluid levels are restored to pre-event levels * Short-term recovery requires activities such as cool-down following training, together with low intensity exercise to promote loco tissue repair and disperse lactic acid * Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological Physiological strategies (cool down, nutritional plan hydration + fuel recovery) * Physiological strategies need to focus on the removal of metabolic by-products and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients * An effective cool-down is the recommended manner for removal of metabolic by-products * The purpose of a cool-down following exercise is to gradually reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre-exercise state while also assisting in the removal of waste products including lactic acid, which contributes to muscle stiffness and soreness * It is also intentional to restore a number of other elevat ed body functions, such as ventilation rate, blood distribution and adrenaline levels back to normal * The cool-down should consist of 5-10 minutes of walking / jogging / slow swimming, with the aim of returning the body to pre-exercise temperature * Static stretching is also important * Vigorous or sustained exercise that is not concluded with a cool-down may result in blood pooling, causing dizziness * A nutritional plan encompassing fluid recovery and fuel recovery is paramount * Drinking 600mL of water for every half kilogram of weight lost during exercise is ecommended * During the first 30 minutes to two hours following exercise the muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment and this is the best time for fuel recovery * A high carbohydrate diet is recommended during exercise recovery nervous strategies (hydrotherapy, massage) * Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been deteriorate or damaged as a result of high intensity ex ercise * Strenuous exercise impacts on the profound nervous system and this may contribute to fatigue * Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery * Water provides support for movements, and eliminates clash and straining movements that are associated with land drills * typical hydrotherapy methods involve use of locomote rooms, spas, underwater massage and heated swimming pools * Sports massage focuses on body and mental relaxation It is important as exercise induced tension can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles * Post-event massage claims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assist in eliminating toxic by-products, promote flexibility and prepare the athlete for the next training session Tissue damage strategies (cryotherapy) * Cryotherapy involves the use of cooling to treat injury or quicken recovery from performances, particularly those that involve collisions and / or sustained intensity * app lesauce is the most used form of cryotherapy because of its ability to slow down the tissue instigative process, preventing the build-up of waste Psychological strategies (relaxation) Use of psychological strategies represents an important phase in mad and possibly spiritual recovery * take care relaxing activities such as reading, audience to music, and watching movies or television are helpful and used by most athletes * The benefits of other more specialised psychological techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation, flotation, meditation, visualisation, centred breathing and positive self-talk are bring in if practise frequently Chapter 8 scientific discipline and performance * Skill is the ability to systematically perform movements with control and precision * The kneadedness of skill is a gradual education process that requires that our cognitive ( idea) processes work with our physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that previously were unknown to us * Acquisition is gaining possession of something Stages of skill acquisition * cognitive * associative * independent Stages of skill acquisition The pegs of skill acquisition can be categorised into the cognitive or planning stage, the associative or invest stage and the autonomous or automatic stage Cognitive stage * Cognitive refers to mental processing of entropy, thinking and thought * The fundamental requirement here is that the athlete gains an understanding of the task required * The assimilator may experience error, subnormality and some disorientation * Positive breeding should be reinforced and encouraged associative stage * Associative means connecting or linking ideas * The associative stage is identified by a specific emphasis on approach pattern * Errors still occur, but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage * A sense of fluency or smoothness develops as the bookmans kinaesthesis improves self-governing stage Autonomous means being in full control of actions so they become automatic * Temporal patterning is developed, where their movement has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines sequence and blend in esthetically pleasing motions Characteristics of the learner, e. g. spirit, heredity, confidence, prior experience, ability Characteristics of the learner * The speed with which learners are able to take for granted certain beat back skills depends on a number of factors, of which most are inherent features * Some characteristics of learners that affect the rate of training are personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability Personality Personality refers to an individuals characteristic way of behaving * From a motor scholarship point of view, certain aspects of personality tend to be more approbatory with certain acquire environments * Attributes affecting learning include cooperativeness, willingness to listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressivene ss and willingness to take risks and learn * Traits are characteristics or observable features of a person genetic endowment * Heredity refers to genetic characteristics inherited from our parents * Important hereditary characteristics are the relative percentage of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibres, somatotype, gender, height and conceptual ability * somatotype is a persons body type or shape, with ectomorphic referring to linearity, mesmorphic referring to muscularity and endomorphic referring to roundness combine * Self-confidence is a firm belief in ones own ability * self-confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations * Confidence leads to self-belief Prior experience It is often easier to learn a new skill if kindred movements have already been successfully acquired * transpose of learning is an important reality in the acquisition of new skills * Lateral transfer is the transfer from one task to another similar task e. g. forehand in ping pong and tennis * plumb transfer is mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more gruelling e. g. kicking using a kickboard and freestyle top executive * Ability is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine * Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence * Acuity is pungency The learning environment nature of the skill ( bluff, closed(a), gross, fine, separate, serial, continuous, self-paced, outdoor(a)ly paced) * the performance elements ( stopping point-making, strategic and tactical development) * dress method (massed, distributed, unscathed, part) * feedback (internal, remote, concurrent, delayed, experience of results, knowledge of performance) The learning environment * The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practised, study from coaches and even the influence of surrounding weather conditions The nature of skill * Skills are commonly classified as open or closed, gross motor or fine motor, discrete, serial or continuous, and self-paced or externally paced Open and closed skills Open skills occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing * unlikable skills occur in an environment that is stable and predictable * The closed environment is much more conducive to skill learning because the learner is not distracted by other factors * Skills can be placed along a continuum from closed to open Gross motor and fine motor skills * Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution * pretty motor skills require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement Discrete, serial and continuous skills * Skills can be classified as discrete, serial or continuous according to where they begin and end * Discrete skills have a diaphanous beginning and end that can be identified e. g. a forward role * Serial skills involve a equence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a derive skill e. g. a layup in basketball * Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end e. g. swimming Self-paced and externally paced skills * Self-paced skills are movements for which the factor determines the timing and speed of execution e. g. roll in cricket * Externally paced skills are movements for which an external source controls the timing e. g. hit in cricket Performance elements * The performance elements are decision making, strategic development and tactical development * The game-centred approach aims to focus on the whole game and all components Decision making Productive decision making is best achieved through observation, questioning, whole, part, whole approach, variation and creativity Strategic and tactic development * Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do * Tactical sensory faculty is about utilisi ng ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent * Strategic and tactical development is built on the principles of technical efficiency, understanding and skilful execution Practice methods * The learning environment is further affected by the practice methods or training systems and routines designed to teach particular skills Massed and distributed practice Distributed practice (or spaced practice) involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals * Distributed practice whole kit and caboodle best when the performing artist lacks interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low or the task causes fatigue * Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals * Massed practice works best when performers are passing motivated and fresh Whole and part practice * The whole practice method is applied when a skill is practised in its entirety * The part practice method is applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete sub-skill is practised separately * Whole-part-whole practice is a combination of both methods Feedback Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance * The many types of feedback include internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Internal (or intrinsic) and external (or extrinsic) feedback * Internal feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill and is received through the bodys proprioceptive mechanisms or senses * External feedback is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill * Augmented feedback, a type of external feedback, is supplementary information that is not given at the time that the skill is performed e. g. television receiver analysis concurrent (or continuous) and delayed feedback * Concurrent fe edback is received during the performance of a skill and it is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism * Delayed feedback is received after the skill has been executed e. g. waiting for the result of a basketball shot fellowship of results and knowledge of performance Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of a movement, it is of all time external and may come from a coach or referees for usage * Knowledge of performance is information about the pattern of the movement during execution, it gives feedback on the feel of the execution of the skill Assessment of skill and performance * characteristics of practised performers, e. g. kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique * objective and subjective performance measures * cogency and dependableness of tests * personal versus prescribed discernment criteria Assessment of skill and performance Characteristics of skilled performers * The movements of the skilled performer have certa in observable qualities including kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique Kinaesthetic sense * Kinaesthesis (or kinaesthetic sense) refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments presentiment Skilled performers are better able to predict what may happen in specific situations Consistency * The skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly Technique * Technique is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task Objective and subjective performance methods * Measurement is the process of using numeric information to assess a particular physical ability * Subjective observation refers to a brain of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather than a measurement system * Objectivity is the extent to which a measure or test is independent of the observer Validity and reliability of tests Validity is the honesty of a test that is, the degree to which it measures what i t is supposed to measure * The inclemency of a test is enhanced by accuracy in prediction and ensuring test items contain the component being pass * Reliability refers to the degree of consistency of a test that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on concomitant occasions Personal versus prescribed judgement criteria * Criteria refer to the standards / qualities used for judging the value of a performance * Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance * Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organization or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity * Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or soulfulness * The use of prescribed criteria seeks to absorb elements of subjectiveness into a more objective poser